The Role of Parental Divorce in Childhood on Depression Among Adults

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The Role of Parental Divorce in Childhood on Depression Among The Role of Parental Divorce in Childhood on Depression Among

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Amy Stoermer

University of Northern Iowa

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The Role of Parental Divorce in Childhood on Depression Among Adults The Role of Parental Divorce in Childhood on Depression Among Adults

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PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 1

The Role of Parental Divorce in Childhood on Depression Among Adults

Amy S. Stoermer

Department of Social Work, University of Northern Iowa

SW 6265: Advanced Social Work Research

Dr. Sei-Young Lee

May 10, 2024

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 2

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to assess the relationship between parental divorce and depression in

emerging young adults who responded to the 2019 BRFSS study. The 2019 BRFSS utilized a

Disproportionate Stratified Sample design to gather data across all states in the U.S. by the

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The final number of participants used in this

study was 50,804, ranging in age from 18 through 30. The number of male participants was

27,208 and the number of female participants was 23,596. The race of participants consisted of

31,177 white/non-Hispanic, 4,327 black/non-Hispanic, 3,443 Asian/non-Hispanic, and 2,831

other/non-Hispanic. The findings from the current study showed that there is a statistically

significant relationship between experience of parental divorce and depression. The study also

found that females who experienced parental divorce tended to have higher rates of depression

than males who experienced parental divorce. Understanding the role of parental divorce as it

relates to depression in the offspring (especially females) can guide future practitioners with

supporting this population effectively.

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 3

The Role of Parental Divorce in Childhood on Depression Among Adults

Although both marriage and divorce rates have declined since 2011, 6.9 out of every

1,000 women were divorced in 2021 (Washington & Anderson, 2023). Anytime a divorce

occurs between adults with children, those children are left to deal with the changes and

consequences that take place when their parents separate. General family conflict and changes in

family structure (including the formation of stepfamilies) can all affect the well-being of children

(Shafer et al., 2016).

Recent research suggests that children of divorced parents experience more psychological

symptoms than children of non-divorced parents, such as greater risks of depression and anxiety,

lower self-esteem, increased avoidance issues, and externalized behavioral issues (Sorek,

2019). However, the processes used to find the relationship between parental divorce and mental

health issues are still elusive (Schaan & Vogele, 2016). Several factors are being investigated to

determine the relationship between parental divorce and mental health issues in their children.

One of these is the role of parental behaviors during both the process of divorce and the post-

divorce period (Smith-Etxeberria et al., 2022). Another example of a factor to be considered is

whether the children (or adolescents) experienced depression prior to their parents separating or

divorcing (Bohman et al., 2017). Other areas to examine include psychological development and

coping strategies among children who have experienced parental divorce.

Women experience depression at nearly double the rate that men do, and there may be

some reasons for this difference. Factors that may increase a woman’s risk of developing

depression include hormonal changes (such as puberty, premenstrual issues, pregnancy, post-

partum, perimenopause and menopause), and life circumstances and/or culture (such as work

overload, unequal status or power, various forms of abuse, and general stress levels) (Pruthi,

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 4

2019). Traditional gender roles can also have an impact on depression outcomes for women.

For example, females are often expected to be nurturing, empathetic, and compliant. Because of

these rigid role expectations, women can feel as though they aren’t fully able to express

themselves, which can be a factor that leads to depression (Ilic, 2023).

The role of how gender affects the mental health outcomes of offspring from divorced

families is also being considered. For example, some studies have examined whether females

that experienced parental divorce are more likely to experience depressive systems as adults than

males (Schaan et al., 2019). The primary purpose of the current study is to examine the role of

family conflict and parental divorce in the psychological development of the children involved.

Studying the depression rates of those children as they become adults is vital in learning what

can be done to mediate any psychological maladjustments that may be taking place because of

divorce.

Literature Review

The relationship between parental divorce and depression in emerging adults has been

reported by the existing study findings. At least fifteen articles cited here also reported the

relationship between parental divorce and psychological symptoms later in life. Parental conflict

was also heavily weighed as a risk factor for the manifestation of depression and other

psychological maladjustments in children.

Psychological Development and Maladjustment in Children of Divorce

Studies have confirmed that children who do not grow up in their biological two-parent

home report poorer mental health outcomes than those who grew up without separated and/or

divorced parents (Bergstrom et al., 2015; Bjarnason et al., 2010). Understanding how changes in

the family structure affect children is important in analyzing the long-term consequences of

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 5

divorce. Conflict within the family has been shown to increase the risk of psychological issues

in children, which can sometimes persist into adulthood.

Bohman et al. (2017) did a study to test the hypothesis that parental separation predicts

adult depression. A second hypothesis was tested to find out if an association between parental

separation in childhood and depression in adulthood is more prominent if the individual

experienced depression in adolescence. Depression screenings (the Beck Depression Inventory-

Child and the Centre for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale for Children) were used to

evaluate the prevalence of depression and to set up a control group of an equal number of peers

of similar age, sex, and school grade. Participants also took the Children’s Life Events

Inventory, which relates to family and social situations in the lives of the individuals. 15 years

later, follow-up was done with the original participants to see if they had experienced depressive

symptoms as adults. Throughout their research, they found that parental separation did seem to

be a predictor of depression in adulthood, especially among those that had experienced

depression in adolescence (Bohman et al., 2017).

Research has been done to discover how adverse childhood environments affect mental

health. From that research, it’s been revealed that those children with dysfunctional family

relationships showed the highest rates of poor psychological health at the time, and in the future

(Cohen et al., 2006; Clark et al., 2010). More specifically, inter-parental conflict, which is a

strong indicator of divorce, has been key in the adjustment and psychological development of

children. When parents are frequently in conflict and then get divorced, the children have a

significantly greater risk of depression and other mental health symptoms (DiManno et al.,

2018). A study conducted by Roubinov and Lueken (2013) examined the relationship between

family conflict and the mental health impact on children. This was achieved by recruiting

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 6

participants from introductory psychology classes. A large screening survey was done by

referencing the Family Relationship subscales (Conflict, Cohesion, and Expressiveness). The

participants were divided into two study groups: “Continuously Married” (parents) and

“Divorced” (parents). 76 people were in the first study group (38 male, 38 female), and 50

people were in the second study group (20 male, 30 female). Family conflict (prior to the age of

16) was assessed using the Conflict subscale of the Moos Family Environment Scale. These

researchers found that although exposure to negative family situations in childhood can be

detrimental to the child’s adjustment as they grow, the study was not able to support the theory

that parental divorce in childhood can lead to depressive symptoms in adulthood (Roubinov &

Lueken, 2013). However, inter-parental conflict can continue beyond the divorce itself,

sometimes resulting in the children being put in the middle of the parents. The children can

become the intermediaries between parents, or the children could lose time or contact with one

parent (Somers et al., 2017).

A study conducted by Sorek (2019) looked at the psychological processes of children of

divorced parents and heavily weighed the factor of parental conflict as a risk factor for the

children’s overall well-being (more specifically, children’s opinions about their own quality of

life). The researcher recruited 122 participants from agencies that worked with families going

through divorce, and through social media platforms. The study was done by using a cross-

sectional survey of self-assessed internet questions. Intensity of parental conflict was evaluated

by using a variation of two measures from the Children’s Perception of Interparental Conflict

scale. The two measures looked at how intense the parental conflict was, and to what extent the

children felt they were put in the middle of the conflict, each according to the children surveyed.

Self-blame can be a factor for children whose parents are going through a divorce, and this study

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 7

confirmed the correlation. The higher the self-blame in children, the more those same children

reported a lower quality of life. This was proven in the findings on both the Personal Well-Being

Index (School Children) and the Student Life Satisfaction Scale because self-blame was

negatively related to quality of life (Sorek, 2019).

Effects of Parental Divorce on Emerging Adults

Individuals between the ages of 18 and 30 are considered emerging adults, and this is an

important period of development (Shafer, Jensen & Holmes, 2016). This is a time when young

adults are often moving out on their own, going to college, entering relationships, getting

married, and/or having children of their own. It has been suggested that young adults who

experienced parental divorce are more likely to report lower satisfaction in their own romantic

relationships (Cui et al., 2011). In addition, a study conducted by Roper and colleagues (2020)

was done to understand how parental divorce can influence the romantic relationships of young

adult offspring, specifically concerning attachment, individual stress, relationship satisfaction,

and how young adult children feel about their divorced parents. The study used a correlational

design to learn more about the effects of childhood divorce on young adults, along with the

aspects that are linked to more positive experiences after parents are divorced. Recruiting study

participants via Facebook, Craigslist, and flyers, the study primarily consisted of females

(81.3%) and European-American (84.2%) young adults with the mean age was 22.4 (SD = 2.34)

(Roper et al, 2020). The study found that those who went through parental divorce are 2.5 times

more likely to experience significant tension and stress in their romantic relationships. In

addition, a study done by Smith-Etxeberria et al. (2018) that focuses on the parental divorce

process and post-divorce parental behaviors indicates that in general, adult children of divorce

often suffer from lower feelings of well-being, more marital dissatisfaction, and higher divorce

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 8

rates of their own. Another study conducted by Yarnoz-Yaben and Garmendia (2015) with a

sample of young adults between the ages of 18 and 30 compared life satisfaction of young adults

from divorced families to those from non-divorced families. The study reported that those with

divorced parents had lower life satisfaction and their levels of negative affect were higher.

Resiliency and Coping Skills in Relation to Parental Divorce

Some studies have chosen to focus on resiliency and rejection sensitivity, and what roles

these may play for children who have experienced parental separation and/or divorce. It has

been hypothesized that children of divorced parents are more likely to have lowered resiliency

and increased rejection sensitivity (Mikuliner et al., 2015). When comparing adults who

experienced parental divorce as children with adults who did not experience parental divorce,

resiliency and rejection sensitivity mediate an association between parental divorce in childhood

and higher levels of anxiety and depression. Schaan and Vogele (2016) conducted a study to test

this hypothesis as well. They utilized online surveys distributed through Facebook and the

university’s student platform. Of the 186 participants who completed the study, 33% of them

had parents who were divorced. The results of this study confirmed that when young adults

experienced parental divorce during childhood, those individuals reported reduced psychological

well-being compared to those that had not experienced parental divorce in childhood. The study

found that those with divorced parents scored higher on the childhood trauma scale, as well as

higher levels of rejection sensitivity and lower levels of resilience (Schaan & Vogele, 2016).

Another study examined coping skills that children may use when they are experiencing a

distressing life event such as parental divorce. According to Roubinov and Lueken (2013) who

recruited college students from psychology class and examined disengagement as a coping skill,

escape, withdrawal, or avoidance of stressful situations are often used as the main types of

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 9

disengagement coping styles in children. These coping mechanisms are frequently related to

poor psychological health. Disengagement strategies may be relied upon by children of high-

conflict families to limit their exposure to stressful situations. This disengagement coping skill

may be helpful for children in the short term, but this type of coping can carry their distress

throughout childhood and can become detrimental in adolescence and young adulthood. Young

adults continue to experience brain development changes after their teen years and this, along

with a reliance on disengagement coping strategies, can lead to the occurrence of depression.

Effects of Parental Divorce on Females

Another important aspect of parental divorce and depression to note is gender as the

effect of divorce is significant on females. Females can naturally be more susceptible to

depression due to the way the female sex hormone affects the brain (Whitaker et al., 2021). As

girls are transitioning into young adulthood, the incidence of depression is more than twice that

of boys at the same age and going through the same developmental period (Shifren et al., 2015).

Although somewhat scarce, studies also tested the hypothesis that more females

experience depression in relation to ACEs than males do. One such study was done by

Whitaker, et al. (2021), who used a cross-sectional design with survey data from the MIDUS

(Midlife in the United States) study to examine 4,344 participants (53.9% female and 46.1%

male). This study found that the relationship between exposure to ACEs and being female was

significant. When exposed to one Adverse Childhood Experience, 14.9% of females reported a

major depressive episode, compared to 7.9% of males. These numbers increased significantly

for females with exposure to more ACEs. For example, when individuals were exposed to 3-5

ACEs, 26.9% of females reported experiencing a major depressive episode, whereas 12.3% of

males who experienced the same number of ACEs reported a major depressive episode

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 10

(Whitaker et al., 2021). Other studies have proven the positive relationship, specifically within

certain categories of ACEs and depression. Jiang et al. (2022) conducted a study on the

connection between ACEs and depression in males and females. The researchers used a

stratified random sampling method to recruit children ages 10-17 in China. The study found that

35% of those surveyed had experienced at least one type of ACE. The depression rates were

found to be higher in girls than in boys .

However, there is a study reporting no gender difference in the relationship between

parental divorce and depression. According to Oldehinkel and colleagues (2008), although boys

and girls are likely to have an equal chance of experiencing parental divorce, there has not been

enough evidence to support that parental divorce affects the mental health of boys and girls

differently. However, they point out that as girls transition into adolescence, they experience

hormonal and social changes which increase their affiliative needs (or preference for close

emotional relationships). Because of this transition, girls may tend to become more easily

affected by interpersonal stressors in adolescence (Oldehinkel et al, 2008). Although studies

focusing on how parental divorce affects females are slightly elusive, some do exist such as a

study conducted by Schaan and colleagues (2019).

Current Study

The purpose of the present study is to gain a better understanding of the relationship

between parental separation, divorce, parental conflict, or changes in family structure, and the

incidence of depression in emerging adulthood. Relevant studies up to this point have been

varied in findings, indicating inconsistencies in results and gaps in research. For example, one

gap in research has to do with how both parental divorce and stepfamily formation together can

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 11

contribute to depression in emerging adults (Shafer et al., 2016). Overall, there has not been a lot

of research done on depression affected by parental separation or divorce.

The current study aims to discover more knowledge about how parental divorce can

affect the mental health of emerging adults. The following hypotheses are tested:

1. Adults who grew up with divorced parents experience higher rates of depression.

2. Women who grew up with divorced parents experience higher rates of depression

than men.

Methods

The current study utilizes secondary data from the 2019 Behavioral Risk Factor

Surveillance System (BRFSS). The BRFSS is a joint project between all states in the U.S.

(along with participating United States territories), and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC).

The CDC conducts the survey with the goal of obtaining uniform, state specific data on chronic

diseases and conditions, access to health care, health risk behaviors, and preventative health

services related to the leading causes of death and disability in the U.S. (CDC, Overview BRFSS

2019). BRFSS was initiated first in 1984 and has been collected annually. Additional

information and data are available to download on the Centers for Disease Control website:

https://www.cdc.gov/brfss/annual_data/annual_2019.html

Sampling and Population

The BRFSS utilizes a telephone survey to obtain information from a sample population.

This is achieved by using a Disproportionate Stratified Sample (DSS) design for the landline

samples. The phone numbers are first divided into two strata: high density and medium density.

These groups are categorized based on the number of listed household phone numbers in its

hundred block, or by a set of 100 phone numbers with the same area code, prefix, first two digits

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 12

of the suffix, and all possible combinations of the last two digits. In this case, high density

phone numbers were listed numbers (1+ blocks), and medium density phone numbers were

unlisted numbers (1+ blocks). Cellular telephone sampling is commercially available using the

Telecordia database of telephone exchanges and 1,000 banks.

The target population for the current survey was individuals 18 years and older, residing

in a private residence. For the cell phone samples, the target population requirements were to

reside in a private residence or college housing and have a working cell phone.

Data Collection

Data is collected by using the Computer-Assistance Telephone Interview (CATI)

systems. Telephone interviews are conducted each calendar month, and calls are made seven

days per week in both the daytime and evening. Following standard BRFSS procedures, a

rotation of calls is made over different days of the week and times of the day. The questionnaire

consists of three sections: core components, optional BRFSS modules, and state-added

questions. The core components consist of standard questions that all states use, including

current health-related perceptions, conditions and behaviors. The optional BRFSS modules are

sets of questions on specific topics, such as diabetes, excessive sun-exposure, caregiving, etc.

Individual states may develop their own sets of questions if they choose, but the CDC is not

involved with evaluating, tracking, or reporting the state-added data.

In the landline surveys, interviewers collect data from a randomly selected adult in the

household. In cell phone surveys, interviewers collect data from adults answering that resided in

a private residence or college housing.

Measures

Dependent Variables

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 13

The dependent variables in the current study include depression symptoms and diagnosis

of a depressive disorder. Depression was assessed through questionnaire item C02.02

(MENTHLTH): “Now thinking about your mental health, which includes stress, depression and

problems with emotions, for how many days during the past 30 days was your mental health not

good?” Response options were: “_ _ number of days (01-30),” “88 - None,” “77-Don’t

know/not sure,” and “99-Refused.” This variable was re-coded to (MENTHLTH_re), with the

original question remaining. However, response options were changed to: “Number between 0

and 30” to better gauge overall mental health. Diagnosis of a depressive order was assessed

through survey questionnaire item C06.09 (ADDEPEV2): “(Ever told) (you had) a depressive

disorder (including depression, major depression, dysthymia, or minor depression?” Response

options were: “1-Yes,” “2-No,” “7-Don’t know/not sure,” “9-Refused.” This variable was also

re-coded, with the new code being (ADDEPEV2_re). The revised question was “Have you ever

been told you have a depressive disorder.” New response options were: “0-No,” and “1-yes.”

All “Don’t Know/Not Sure” and “Refused” responses were removed from the data.

Independent Variable

The study’s independent variable was parental divorce, which was assessed through

questionnaire item M22.05 (ACEDIVRC): “Were your parents separated or divorced?”

Response options were: “1-yes,” “2-no,” “8-Parents not married,” “7-Don’t know/Not sure,” “9-

Refused.” This variable was re-coded to (ACEDIVRC_re), but the original question remained

the same. The answer choices were changed to value labels of “0-No” and “1-Yes.” All “Don’t

Know/Not Sure” and “Refused” responses were removed from the data.

Demographic Variables

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 14

Relevant demographic variables in this study included age, gender, race, and education.

Within the BRFSS, age can be reported as: “_ _ age in years,” “07-Don’t know/not sure,” or “09-

Refused.” This variable was re-coded to (@_AGE80), which is the imputed age value collapsed

above 80 years old. For the current study, the options were between the ages of 18 and 30.

Gender is originally assessed as male, female, don’t know/not sure, or refused. This was re-

coded to (@_SEX) to include a calculated variable: “1-male,” or “2-female.” In the BRFSS,

race can be reported as: “10-white,” “20-Black/African American,” “30-American Indian or

Alaska Native,” “40-Asian” (with a subcategory of an additional seven options), “50-Pacific

Islander” (with a subcategory of four additional options), “60-other,” “88-No additional

choices,” “77-Don’t know/Not sure,” “99-Refused.” Racial groups were re-coded

(@_IMPRACE_), with the following responses: “1-White, Non-Hispanic,” “2-Black, Non-

Hispanic,” “3 - Asian, Non-Hispanic,” “4-Hispanic,” “5-Other race, non-Hispanic.” Education

was assessed through item C08.06 (EDUCA), by asking the following question: “What is the

highest grade or year of school you completed?” Response options were: “1-Never attended

school or only attended Kindergarten,” “2-Grades 1-8 (Elementary), “3-Grades 9-11 (Some high

school),” 4-Grade 12 or GED (High school graduate),” “5-College 1 to 3 years (Some college or

technical school),” “6-College 4 years or more (college graduate),” “9-Refused.” The education

variable was re-coded to a computed level of education completed categories (@_EDUCAG):

“1-Did not graduate from high school,” “2-Graduated from high school,” “3-Attended college or

technical school,” “4-Graduated from college or technical school,” “9-Don’t know/not

sure/missing.” All “Don’t Know/Not Sure” and “Refused” responses were removed from the

data.

Data Analysis

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 15

Results of the survey questions were categorized and coded using the IBM SPSS

program, like the study done by Smith-Etxeberria and colleagues (2022). Univariate analysis was

used to determine the frequencies of demographic variables, such as age, race, gender and

education level. Univariate analysis was also used to examine the frequency of parental divorce

and the frequency of being diagnosed with a depressive disorder.

Bivariate analysis tests included the Pearson r correlation, independent groups t-test, Chi-

square test, and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The Pearson r correlation was used to examine

the correlation between age and depressive symptoms. This test was also used to assess the

correlation between parental divorce and depressive symptoms. Chi-square testing was used to

analyze the relationship between gender (specifically females) and the occurrence of depressive

disorder diagnosis. Independent Group t-test was used to examine the relationship between

parental divorce and mental health symptoms, as well as the relationship between gender

(specifically females) and mental health symptoms. ANOVA was used to investigate the

relationship between race and mental health symptoms, and the relationship between education

level and mental health symptoms.

Results

Sample Characteristics

Table 1 describes sample characteristics. The gender distribution in this sample was

53.6% (n=27208) male and 46.4% (n=23596) female, showing a slightly higher percentage of

male participants. The average age of the sample (mean) was 24.39, with a standard deviation of

3.76. The age distribution of the sample was 18 to 30 years old. In terms of race, 61.4 %

(n=31177) self-reported as White non-Hispanic, 17.8% (n=9026) Hispanic, 8.5% (n=4327)

Black non-Hispanic, 6.8% (n=3443) Asian non-Hispanic, and 5.6% (n=2831) Other/non-

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 16

Hispanic. The educational levels of the participants were included, as well. 6.6% (n=3323) of

participants did not graduate high school, 32.4% (n=16412) graduated high school, 32.2%

(16314) attended some college or technical school, 28.8% (n=14583) graduated from college or

technical school.

Table 1 also presents Adverse Childhood Experiences (parental separation/divorce) and

depressive disorders among study participants. For the Adverse Childhood Experiences, 56.5%

(n=6239) of participants had not experienced parental separation and/or divorce and 43.5%

(n=4801) had parents that were separated and/or divorced. In terms of depressive disorders,

77.7% of participants (n=39184) had never been told they have a depressive disorder, and 22.3%

(n=11255) had been told they have depressive disorder at some point in their lives. Participants

were also asked how many days they experienced poor mental health. The average (mean)

number of reported poor mental health days in a month was 5.90 with a standard deviation of

8.88. The range of this data was 0-30 days.

Table 1

Sample Characteristics of the Study Participants

Variable n (%)

Gender

Male

Female

27208 (53.6%)

23596 (46.4%)

Race

White non-Hispanic

Black non-Hispanic

Asian non-Hispanic

Hispanic

Other non-Hispanic

31177 (61.4%)

4327 (8.5%)

3443 (6.8%)

9026 (17.8%)

2831 (5.6%)

Education

Did not graduate high school

Graduated high school

Attended college or tech school

Graduated from college or tech school

3323 (6.6%)

16412 (32.4%)

16314 (32.2%)

14583 (28.8%)

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 17

ACE 5: Parents divorced/separated

Yes

Ever told you had a depressive disorder

Yes

6239 (56.5%)

4801 (43.5%)

39184 (77.7%)

11255 (22.3%)

N Mean SD Range (min. – max.)

Age 50804 24.39 3.76 18-80

# Days of poor mental

health

49943 5.90 8.88 0-30

Correlation Analysis

Correlation analysis was performed to investigate a relationship between age and

depression. Results are presented in Table 2. The results indicated a significant correlation

between depression and age (r = -.148; p = .001) at p < 0.01, demonstrating that the older a

person is, the less likely depression is experienced.

Table 2

Correlation Between Depression (DV), Age (IV)

Variable r p

Age * Depression

-.148

<.001

Independent Sample t-Test

An independent sample t-test was conducted to determine whether there is a difference in

mean scores of depression between two groups of gender, as shown in Table 3. Results showed

there was a significant difference in depression between males and females (t = -27.11, df =

49941, p = <.001). When looking at the mean levels of depression by gender, females’

depression (M =7.05, SD = 9.35) was higher than in males (M = 4.9, SD = 8.32).

Another independent sample t-test was conducted to determine whether there is a

difference in mean scores of depression between those who have experienced parental divorce

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 18

and those who have not. From the study sample, the mean of depression for those who have

experienced parental divorce was 7.35 (SD = 9.82), while the average for the respondents who

had not experienced parental divorce was 5.23 (SD = 8.28). Results indicated a significant

difference in the level of depression between respondents in the sample (t = 12.13, df = 10827, p

= <.001), indicating that those who have experienced parental divorce experienced a higher level

of depression than those that have not experienced parental divorce.

Table 3

Depression by Gender (t-test)

N Mean SD t df p

Gender

Male

26735 4.9 8.32 -27.11 49941 <.001

Female

23208 7.05 9.35

Parental Divorce

No 6121 5.23 8.28 -12.13 10827 <.001

Yes 4708 7.35 9.82

Significance level: * p<.05; ** p<.01; *** p<.001

One-way ANOVA

One-way ANOVA test was conducted to compare the mean score of depression by five

groups of race/ethnicity, as presented in Table 4. The results also showed the mean levels of

depression were highest for Other/non-Hispanics (M = 5.58, SD = 9.57, N = 14044), followed

by African American/non-Hispanics (M = 4.23, SD = 8.44, N = 30792), Whites (M = 3.75, SD =

7.97, N = 312304), and Hispanics (M = 3.94, SD = 8.22, N = 36716). The results showed a

significant difference in the number of poor mental health days across the five groups of

race/ethnicity (F = 189.75, df = 409484, p <.001). Post Hoc shows that depression level was

significantly lower in Whites, compared to Blacks (p<.001), Hispanics (p<.001), and other races

(p<.001). Blacks were significantly higher in depression, compared to Asians (p<.001) while

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 19

Blacks showed a significantly lower level of depression, compared to other races (p<.001).

Asians showed a significantly lower level of depression compared to Hispanics (p<.001) and

other races (p<.001). Hispanics showed a lower level of depression compared to other races

(p<.001).

Table 4

Depression by Race (one-way ANOVA)

Depression N Mean SD F df p

African American/Non-

Hispanic

30792 4.23 8.44 189.74 409484 < .001

Asian/non-Hispanic 15633 3.82 7.98

Caucasian/non-Hispanic 312304 3.75 7.97

Hispanic 36716 3.94 8.22

Other Race/non-

Hispanic

14044 5.58 9.57

Significance level: * p<.05; ** p<.01; *** p<.001

Chi-square Statistics

A Chi-square test was conducted to examine whether there is an association between

gender and diagnosis of depression, as shown in Table 5. The results indicated that there was a

significant association between gender and diagnosis of depression (χ

=5773.78, df = 1, p = <

.001). Females are more likely to be diagnosed with depression compared to males (66.7% vs.

33.3%).

Table 5

Chi-Square Test between Gender and Diagnosis of Depression

Depression

Gender

No = N (%) Yes = N (%)

Males 162351 (48.2%) 26338 (33.3%)

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 20

Females 174453 (51.8%) 227296 (66.6%)

=5773.78 df = 1 p = < .001

Significance level: * p<.05; ** p<.01; *** p<.001

Discussion

The primary purpose of the present study was to analyze the potential relationship

between parental separation, divorce, parental conflict, or changes in family structure, and the

incidence of depression among young adults who responded to the 2019 BRFSS survey. This

study sought to answer two questions. First, do adults who grew up with divorced parents

experience higher rates of depression? And second, do women who grew up with divorced

parents experience higher rates of depression than men?

Findings and Significance

This study found that those who had experienced parental divorce had higher occurrences

of depression as they entered adulthood. This is consistent with studies conducted by Bergstrom

et al. (2015) and Bjarnson et al. (2010), which found that children who do not grow up in their

biological two-parent home reported poorer mental health outcomes than those who grew up

without separated and/or divorced parents. Another study done by Bohman et al. (2017) found

that parental separation and/or divorce is a predictor of depression in adulthood. Additionally,

findings from a study done by Schaan and Vogele (2016) confirmed that when young adults

experienced parental divorce during childhood, those individuals reported reduced psychological

well-being compared to those that had not experienced parental divorce in childhood.

The present study also found that females who grew up with divorced parents

experienced higher rates of depression than men. Previous studies have examined the

relationship between adverse childhood experiences and depression in males versus females. A

study done by Whitaker et al. (2021) found a significant correlation between ACEs and

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 21

depression in females. Findings were similar in a study done by Jiang et al. (2022), in which

they were able to show a positive correlation between ACEs and depression in females. This is

consistent with the findings of the current study, which indicate a positive correlation between

parental divorce (which is considered an adverse childhood experience) and higher rates of

depression in females than in males.

Limitations

It is important to note the limitations of this research. Because the data came from a

secondary source (2019 BRFSS), the questions were not designed to test the two hypotheses

presented in this study. The researchers in the present study were not the same researchers that

gathered the original data. Because of this, the researcher analyzing the data may not be familiar

with potential issues or glitches that could have come up during the survey process (Wickman,

2019). In addition to unfamiliarity with the information that was gathered, another limitation of

using secondary data is the lack of control over the quality of the data (Baxter & Gandhi, 2021).

Because the survey is self-reported, there could be issues with missing or inaccurate information.

Strengths

Although the current study has some limitations, there are strengths to note, as well. The

2019 BRFSS uses a disproportionate stratified sample design for the landline telephone surveys.

This type of design is beneficial to ensuring sufficient representation of smaller subgroups within

the overall sample (Freedman & Taub, 2006). In this case, the research design assists with

providing more responses within the five different races. Another strength of the current study is

the large sample of individuals between the ages of 18 and 30 years old, with a nearly equal

distribution of males and females. This was beneficial when analyzing the differences in

depression rates between males and females.

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 22

Ethical/Cultural Considerations

It’s important to take ethical and cultural considerations into account when doing

research. According to Rice (2022), some of the common areas to consider are language,

religion, socio-economic status, and minority populations. In this study, secondary data was

used to gather information. When looking at possible ethical or cultural concerns with this

study, it may be worth considering the language aspect, as noted above. When calls are being

made to the sample population, language is not discussed as a potential barrier. Perhaps some of

those being called don’t speak English, which could be a barrier to communication in terms of

the study. In the future, one way to reconcile this issue would be to have surveyors that speak

more than one language, so a true representative sample could be achieved.

Implications

The current study contributes to previous research that shows the correlation between

parental divorce (which is considered an ACE) and depression in emerging young adults. The

research for this study went beyond the initial consideration, looking at the correlation between

parental divorce (ACE) and depression being more prevalent in emerging adult females than in

emerging adult males. The study findings indicated that emerging adult females do, in fact,

experience higher rates of depression than males when they grew up with divorced parents. This

data is important to the field of social work. Understanding how parental separation and/or

divorce affects the children (especially females) can help to develop therapies or programs to

assist those children in successfully navigating this adverse childhood experience. The hope

would be that fewer emerging adult children would experience depression because of growing up

with divorced parents.

Conclusion

PARENTAL DIVORCE & DEPRESSION 23

The present study looked at the relationship between parental divorce and depression in

emerging adult children. This study found a significant relationship between parental divorce

and depression. Females were more vulnerable to depression and changes of family structure.

Several races/ethnicities were represented in this research. However, the study focused heavily

on how parental divorce affects females. A recommendation for future studies would be to look

at how a person’s race may or may not contribute to these findings. Examining the educational

levels of the individuals participating in future studies may be of significance in future research,

as well. Although it would change the overall focus of this particular study, it may be beneficial

to either expand the research to include a larger range in ages of the individuals being surveyed,

or to make the age ranges closer to one another. The current study focused on emerging young

adults, ages 18-30. One last recommendation for future research would be to examine whether it

would be more beneficial to widen or narrow the age groups being studied in relation to parental

divorce.

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