FOOD SCIENCE NUTRITION

Former Principal

Maharashtra State Institute of Hotel Management

and Catering Technology, Pune

FOOD SCIENCE

NUTRITION

Third Edition

SUNETRA RODAY

Oxford University Press

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First Edition published in 2007

Second Edition published in 2012

Eight Impression 2016

Third Edition published in 2018

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ISBN-13: 978-0-19-948908-4

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Oxford University Press

Preface to the

Third Edition

e second edition of Food Science and Nutrition received an overwhelming response and served the

purpose of arousing interest in this subject in students, sta, and the community at large. e simple

language and style of presentation has helped people with minimum science background understand

this important subject which has a direct impact on our health and wellbeing. Food safety is the key

to sound health and needs to be in place if citizens of our country are to be protected from food-

borne diseases and dietary deciencies. Just knowledge about nutrition and food science is incomplete

without adding the food safety aspect. Keeping this in mind, this new edition has been developed as a

comprehensive approach to preparing safe and nutritious food for all.

Like every decade, there have been major changes in the Indian consumer’s lifestyle and eating

habits. Likewise, the incidence of lifestyle related diseases and consumption of junk food is on the

increase, making it necessary for all food business operators and homemakers to understand and apply

the basic principles underlying preparation of products that are safe, nutritionally sound, and high in

quality. e important role played by regulatory agencies has become more signicant and now food

business operators are realizing the benets of adopting food standards and regulations in marketing

their products and services.

e aim of this text has been and remains the same—to provide students with a wide range of basic

principles and practices in the subject area, thus enabling them to apply their knowledge eciently—be

it at home, in the food industry, hospitality or health care sector, and provide safe, wholesome, and

quality food.

About the Book

Although the rst edition was initially designed both as an introduction to the subject and as a textbook

for students pursuing degree in Hotel Management and Catering Technology, it was well accepted

by students and faculty members from food technology, home science, and health sciences. Based on

feedback from faculty members, a need to expand the coverage of the book was felt. erefore, the

book now becomes a complete and exhaustive textbook for students from other related streams as well.

Two new chapters and many new topics have been added to ensure adequate coverage of latest trends

and make the book useful for students pursuing a course in food science, home science, and hospitality

studies.

Oxford University Press

vi Preface to the Third Edition

In addition, 12 original chapters have been revised to include the latest examples and trends in the

food and beverage industry. Illustrations have been updated and augmented to add interest to the text.

As in the last edition, each chapter in the book is designed with a focus on the learning objectives.

Key terms are explained at the end of every chapter. Simple illustrations, formulae, and reactions are

added to portray concepts. Review questions are listed at the end of each chapter. A concise summary

to highlight the main points is given for every chapter.

Key Features

 • Completely matches the National Council for Hotel Management & Catering Technology

(NCHMCT) syllabus for the subjects taught in the rst three semesters namely food science,

nutrition, and food safety

 • Coverssubjectstaughtinhospitalityandhoteladministration,foodtechnology,appliedsciences,

home science, and nursing courses

 • Providesampleexamples,reviewquestions,analyticalthinkingexercises,andupdatedreference

charts and tables

 • InstructorsmanualwithMCQsforallchapters

New to the Third Edition

Based on changing trends in hospitality and food business operators as well as the invaluable feedback

received from reviewers, users, industry professionals, and academicians, this edition now includes the

following:

 • Acompletesectioninthebookfocusesonallaspectsoffoodsafetycoveredinfourdedicated

chapters as well an appendix on First Aid.

 • Chapter10onFoodMicrobiologyintroducesthereadertomicroorganismsthatareofsignicance

to the food industry. Both useful and harmful microbes that are of special importance to the

food industry, factors that aect and control the growth of microorganisms. An introduction

to hygienic handling measures of food items to prevent contamination, spoilage and spread of

foodborne disease, emerging pathogens.

 • Chapter11onFoodProcessingandPreservationisbasedonshelf-life,spoilageandcontamination,

objectives of processing, methods of preservation, eect of processing on nutrients, and food

additives.

 • Chapter 12 on Food Safety covers principles of safe food, GHP, GMP, hygiene of the food

establishment, FSMS guidelines, good habits, 7 C’s of food hygiene, common faults in food

preparation and service, and food allergies.

 • Chapter13on FoodStandards,Regulations,andQualityManagementincludes thefollowing

topics—international and national regulations and standards, compulsory and voluntary laws and

standards—CODEX,ISO, BIS, Agmark;regulatory agencies—National —FSSAI, EIC, QCI,

CPA,REGULATORYAGENCIES—International—WHO,FAO,WTO,qualitymanagement

systems—TQM,FSMS,HACCP;foodfortication,geneticallymodiedfoods,foodlabelling.

Oxford University Press

Preface to the Third Edition vii

Extended Chapter Material

e following additions have been made in the existing chapters:

 • Chapter4onProteinshasanewsectiononproteinisolates,concentrates,andhydrolysates.

 • Chapter6onFatsandOilsincludestransfattyacids,interesterication,andfatreplacers.

 • Chapter10onFoodMicrobiologyincludesclassicationofhazardouscontaminants,modeof

spread of food borne pathogens, and emerging pathogens.

 • Chapter11onFoodProcessingandPreservationincludesclassicationoffoodonthebasisofits

shelf-life.

 • Chapter14onIntroductiontoNutritionhasthelatest‘recommendeddietaryallowances’table.

 • Chapter16onProteinsinNutritionhasintroducedtheconceptoflimitingaminoacids.

 • Chapter17onLipidshasanewtopiconnon-communicablediseases(NCDs).

 • Chapter19onVitaminsincludesabsorptionofvitamins.

 • Chapter20onMineralsincludesbioavailabilityofmineralsandSelenium.

 • Chapter22onBalancedDietincludesmodicationsinthehealthyfoodplate.

 • Chapter 24 on Modied Diets has two additional dietary guidelines for cancer patients and

Naturopathy.

 • Chapter25onNewTrendsinFoodshasadditionalinformationonnewpackagingoptions,safety

concerns regarding plastics, and smart packaging.

Coverage and Structure

e text is divided into three sections: (1) food science, (2) food safety, and(3)nutrition.

Section 1—Food Science

e section on food science now comprises nine chapters that cover scientic principles and their

applications in the preparation of food and commercial food products. New commodities and processes

which are of relevance have been included. is section concentrates on the composition, structure, and

behaviour of food in relation to pre-preparation, cooking, packaging, and storage relevant to catering

operations.

Chapter 1 introduces students to the basic concepts of food science.

Chapter 2 is on Colloidal systems in foods and explains various colloidal systems encountered in

foods and their eect on food quality.

Chapter3introducesthestudenttoCarbohydratesandtypesofcerealsandcerealproductsthatare

available in the market.

Chapters4onProteinsexplainspulsestobeavegetariansourceofproteinandtheeectofsteeping,

sprouting, and cooking on pulses.

Chapter5onFruitsandVegetablesdiscussesthestructureandnaturalplantpigmentsaswellasthe

role of plants in human diet, various kinds of fruits and vegetables, as well as the structure and natural

plant pigments present in them.

Chapter6onFatsandOilsdiscussesconceptssuchasrancidity,reversion,rening,winterization,

and nuts and oilseeds.

Oxford University Press

viii Preface to the Third Edition

Chapter 7 on Flavour explains the various aspects as well as the use of avours in food preparation

and dierent spices and herbs.

Chapter 8 on Browning Reactions discusses types of browning reactions and the role of browning

in food preparation.

Chapter9coversdierentmethodsoffoodevaluation.

Section 2—Food Safety

is section comprises four chapters covering all aspects of Food Safety.

Chapter10introducesthereadertomicroorganismsofsignicancetothefoodindustry.

Chapter11onFoodProcessingandPreservationdiscussestheobjectivesoffoodprocessing,methods

of food preservation, and the eect of processing on food constituents.

Chapter 12 is on Food Safety.

Chapter13dealswithFoodStandards,Regulations,andQualityManagement.

Section 3—Nutrition

e section on nutrition comprises 12 chapters related to nutrients and planning of diets for sustaining

a healthy lifestyle. Crucial issues such as weight control, eating disorders, and lifestyle-related diseases

are included in this section. Dietary guidelines for prevention of deciency and problems related to

excessive consumption have been covered.

Chapter14introducesreaderstotheconceptofnutrition.

Chapter 15 on Carbohydrates in Nutritioncoverstheclassication as well as dietary sourcesof

carbohydrates.

Chapter16onProteinsinNutritionintroducesstudentstoclassicationandfunctionsofproteins.

Chapter 17 on Lipids covers fatty acids, antioxidants, saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, and more.

Chapter 18 explains the various functions of water as well as the concept of water balance.

Chapter19discussesthevarioustypesofvitamins.

Chapter20discussestheclassicationandgeneralfunctionsofminerals.

Chapter 21 on Energy Metabolism covers forms of energy, energy requirements, and energy balance.

Chapter 22 discusses the various aspects of a balanced diet, planning balanced diets, various food

pyramids, and the latest concept of the food plate.

Chapter23introducesstudentstomenuplanningandmassfoodproduction.

Chapter24onModiedDietsdiscussesdiettherapyandvarioustypesofmodieddiets.

Chapter25discussesnewtrendsinfoodsandnutritionincludingthenutritionalevaluationofnew

products and highlights dierent nutraceuticals, such as prebiotics and probiotics, and their role in

maintaining health and the signicance of nutritional labelling.

Sunetra Roday

Oxford University Press

Acknowledgements

Many people from the food industry and academia have helped me in successfully completing this

book and I am grateful for their contributions. It is practically impossible to name them all but I would

specially like to mention a few.

IamgratefultoDrEramS.Rao,AssociateProfessorofAppliedSciences,BhaskaracharyaCollegeof

AppliedSciences,UniversityofDelhiandPresident,AssociationofFoodScientistsandTechnologists

(AFST) Delhi Chapter, for her invaluable inputs, inspiration, and encouragement in completing this

project.

I would like to thank Ms Sumedha Jalgaonkar, Food Safety Consultant and Trainer, Foodiesys

Consulting,PuneandMsSurbhiDatta,Counsellor FoodSafetyandQuality,CII-FACE,fortheir

contributionsinChapter13onFoodStandards,Regulations,andQualityManagement.

I owe an immense debt of gratitude to my son, Mr Vikrant Roday, for providing all technical

assistanceandmydaughter,DrNehaVivekSaraf,forherinvaluablecontributionsespeciallytowards

the chapters on Nutrition.

I am also thankful to Dr Shashi A Chiplonkar, Hon. Senior Scientist, H C Jehangir Medical Research

Institute,Puneforhersuggestionsandhelp.

IwouldliketoappreciatethetimelysupportprovidedbytheLibrarianfromMSIHMCT,Pune,Ms

PratibhaWankhede,andAssistantLibrarian,MsDeepaliMarne.

I am immensely indebted to my husband and entire family for putting up with impossible hours

and schedules.

I would also like to thank all the reviewers—Sunita Badhwar, Assistant Professor, BCIHMCT;

SanjibKumarDey,SeniorLecturer,IHMRohtak;GeetikaJoshi,LPU,Jalandhar;andNavjotSahasi,

InstituteofHotelManagement,Catering&Tourism,Udaipur.

I would also like to sincerely thank my friend Dilip Summanwar, Ex-Instructor St John’s Ambulance

(Australia) and Trainer for First Aid classes for e Indian Red Cross Society for his invaluable

contribution to the section on First Aid.

IextendmythankstotheeditorialandproductionteamofOxfordUniversityPress,India.

Feedback on this book can be shared with me at [email protected].

Oxford University Press

Preface to the

First Edition

e provision of food and beverages is one of the oldest services associated with the hospitality industry.

e food services industry has evolved and has come full circle. e need for providing nutritious meals

for balanced overall development has acquired greater signicance in the past few decades.

Eating out is no longer the occasional special event to be celebrated where people indulge. It has

becomeawayoflife.Weareforcedtoeatoutorordertake-awaymealsduetoworkpatterns,education,

or social commitments. e number of people depending on food service providers for meeting their

daily nutritional requirement is increasing at a rapid pace, making it necessary for professionals in the

hospitality sector to be able to oer healthy choices on the menu to the customers.

Food science and nutrition has gained added signicance with an increase in the number of lifestyle-

related diseases, such as high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, heart diseases, diabetes mellitus, and

obesity. Food manufacturers are introducing new products keeping these diseases in mind. A need was

felt for a book designed specially for students in hospitality-related courses that addresses all the basic

issues of food science and nutrition. Keeping this aspect in mind, I decided to write this book.

Food Science and Nutrition is designed both as an introduction to the subject and as a textbook

for ‘Principles of Food Science and Nutrition’ for students of the ‘B.Sc. in Hospitality and Hotel

Administration’ course oered by the National Council for Hotel Management and Catering

Technology, New Delhi.

e students who join catering courses have little or no background in food science. ey need a

textbook that relates to what they practice in practical sessions. ey nd science dicult to comprehend

and time-consuming to study.

From my experience of teaching the subject to students of catering, I have developed a text that

concentrates on those aspects of food science and nutrition of particular relevance to the catering

industry.

e text is divided into two sections: (1) food science and (2) nutrition.

e section on food science comprises 11 chapters that cover scientic principles and their applications

in the preparation of food and commercial food products. New commodities and processes which are

of current relevance have been included. is section concentrates on the composition, structure, and

behaviour of food in relation to pre-preparation, cooking, packaging, and storage relevant to catering

operations.

Oxford University Press

Preface to the First Edition xii

e section on nutrition comprises 12 chapters pertaining to nutrients and planning of diets for

maintaining good health throughout the life cycle.Weight control, eating disorders, and lifestyle-

related diseases are included. Dietary guidelines for prevention of deciency and problems related to

excessive consumption have been covered.

Each chapter in the book is designed with a focus on the objectives. Key terms are explained at the

end of the chapter. Simple illustrations, formulae, and reactions are added to portray concepts. Review

questions are listed at the end of each chapter. A concise summary to highlight the main points is given

for every chapter.

Today’s consumers ask questions about the nutritional value and health benets of food. ey are

aware of the role the diet may play in maintaining and promoting good health. is makes it imperative

for the food service provider to understand the fundamentals underlying food science and nutrition

and put theory into practice.

Reader’s views and comments are most welcome and will be appreciated.

Sunetra Roday

Oxford University Press

Features of the Book

Learning Objectives

Each chapter begins with learning

objectives that focus on learning

and the knowledge you should

acquire by the end of the chapter.

Well-labeled illustrations

Each chapter is interspersed

with numerous illustrations

that supplement the

explanation in the text.

Tables

All chapters contain tables that

provide an outline of the topics

discussed in the chapter.

IntroductIon

The food industry, be it the processing industry or the catering industry, is one of the largest and most

needed industries in the world today fullling one of our three basic needs, i.e., food. Its growth rate

is phenomenal, growing by leaps and bounds to provide three square meals to our rapidly increasing

population and keeping pace with the ever-changing demands of the people.

e developments in the food industry can be traced back to surplus food which needed to be

preserved for a rainy day. Food preservation is not a new phenomenon. Our forefathers understood

the basic principles underlying food preservation and practised them using natural ingredients and the

forces of nature, such as sunlight and ultraviolet (UV) rays, till newer and more scientic methods were

developed.

Improvement in equipment and machinery has made it possible to increase the capacity of food

processing plants greatly. e shelf life of perishable foods has increased dramatically with the invention

of the refrigerator and the use of dry ice.

With the advent of the wheel, surplus food was transported several hundred miles. As early as in

1850, milk was transported by special milk trains and tank trucks over a distance of several hundred

miles with negligible loss in quality. Food, which was perishable, was moved thousands of miles before

it was processed, stored, and consumed.

LearnIng objectIves

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

• appreciate the importance of food science to a caterer in the context of the processed

food revolution

• understand the relationship of food science to food chemistry, food micro biology,

and food processing

• appreciate the role of convenience foods in our day-to-day life

• appreciate the importance of understanding the basic concepts in physics, chemistry, and biology

• understand the applications of these concepts in the food industry

• interpret the weights and measures in recipes

• weigh and measure ingredients accurately

Introduction to

Food Science

Part

Food Science

FoodProcessingandPreservation 167

338

276

250

240

212

170

165

160

145

120

No growth, some bacteria

survive freezing

Scant multiplication and survival

Some bacterial growth occurs

Bacteria multiply rapidly

Pathogenic bacteria killed above 60

survival and scant growth

Tr ichinella cysts killed, cooking

temperatures destroy most

bacteria (74−100

No bacterial growth, some

survive, pathogens are killed

Vegetative cells die, spores survive

Bacterial load reduced to safe levels

Commercial sterilization

Bacterial spores killed

Complete sterilization

170

135

121

115

100

–18

–35

Sterilization by

dry heat

UHTS

Sterilization by

moist heat

Canning low

acid food

Canning high acid

food/blanching, boiling

Dish sanitization

Safe temperature

for pork

Pasteurization HTST

Internal temperature

of reheated food

Danger zone ends

Pasteurization LTH

Body temperature

Cool for refrigeration,

thawing cabinet

temperature

Dry food store ideal

temperature

Danger zone begins

Refrigerated storage

Freezing point of water

Freezer storage

Blast freezing

Fig. 11.1 Temperaturesusedinthefoodindustryandtheireffectonmicroorganisms

ProteinsinNutrition 269

should be includedin the diet. Protein requirement increases during illness or disease as protein is needed

for rebuilding new tissue. In traumatic injury, surgery, burns, and fever,there is breakdown of tissues,

which need to be repaired. Extra physical activity does not require any additional intake of protein.

Adequacy of calorie intake e diet should contain adequate carbohydrates and fats to have a protein

sparing eect.

Quality of protein and eciency of digestion e quantity of protein required will be more if the

protein quality is poor. Plant proteins have a lower digestibility. e method of cooking also aects the

availability of protein. Overcooking and toughening of animal proteins aects digestibility.

Previous state of nutrition Malnourished and underweight individuals require more protein as

compared to healthy individuals.

ReCOMMeNDeD DIeTaRY aLLOwaNCes

e amount of protein required depends on the quality of protein consumed, i.e., on the amino acid

composition of the protein rather than the quantity of protein present in a food. On a mixed vegetarian

diet, adults require 1g/kg body weight (ideal weight). Requirements are higher in terms of body weight

for infants and children because proteins are needed for growth as well as maintenance.

Pregnant women require an additional +23g/day, while lactating mothers need +19g to +13g/day for

0 to 6 months and 6 to 12 months, respectively.

Table 16.5 gives the recommended protein allowances for Indians.

Table 16.5 RecommendedproteinallowancesforIndians

Group Particulars Body weight (kg) Protein (g/day)

Man Adult 60 60

Women Adult 55 55

Pregnancy +23

Lactation (0–6 months) +19

(6–12 months) +13

Infants 0–6 months 5.4 1.16 g/kg

6–12 months 8.4 1.69 g/kg

Children 1–3 years 12.9 16.7

4–6 years 18 20.1

7–9 years 25.1 29.5

Boys 10–12 years 34.3 39.9

13–15 years 47.6 54.3

16–18 years 55.4 61.5

Girls 10–12 years 35 40.4

13–15 years 46.6 51.9

16–18 years 52 55.5

DIeTaRY sOURCes

Proteins are present in both plant and animal foods.

Oxford University Press

Summary

The summary at the

end of each chapter

draws together the main

concepts discussed within

the chapter. This will help

you to reflect and evaluate

important concepts.

Exercises

Each chapter contains

a series of exercises

that enhance learning

and can be used for

review and classroom

discussion.

Appendix

Appendix A at the end of the book

provides information on First Aid

techniques used in different situations

such as heart attack, accident, etc.

Vitamins 305

9. Do not add alkali (soda bicarbonate) to enhance green colour or hasten the cooking of pulses such

as kabuli channa as B-complex and vitamin C are readily destroyed in an alkaline medium.

10. Store food in a refrigerator, covered with a lid, aluminium foil, or cling lm to retain nutrients.

11. Reheat only what is required.

12. Pressure cooking helps in retaining vitamins as food is cooked in a covered container for a shorter

time.

13. Fat-soluble vitamins are lost during deep fat frying, if the food to be fried is not coated prior to

frying.

14. Vitamin A and carotene are lost due to oxidation and dehydration, so keep food covered to prevent

oxidative and moisture loss.

sUMMaRy

Vitaminsarevitalorganiccompoundsrequiredbythe

bodytoperformspecificfunctionssuchasthereleaseof

energyfromfoodandothergrowthrelated,protective

andregulatoryfunctions.Theyarerequiredinminute

amountsandhencearecategorizedasmicronutrients.

Theyarebroadlyclassifiedasfatsoluble(vitaminA,D,

E, and K) and water soluble (B-complex and vitamin

C)vitamins.Eachvitaminhasaspecificroletoperform

andcannotbereplacedbyanothervitamin.Fat-soluble

vitaminsrequirefatfortheirabsorptionandcanbestored

inthebody.Water-solublevitaminsarereadilyabsorbed

butarenotstoredinthebody.Excessiveintakeoffat-

solublevitaminsleadstotoxicityorhypervitaminosis.

 VitaminAispresentinanimalfoodsonly.Carotene,a

precursorofvitaminA,ispresentinyellow,orange,and

redfruitsandvegetables,andingreenleafyvegetables.

WegetourrequirementofvitaminDfromsunlight.The

precursorintheskin‘7-dehydrocholesterol’isactivated

byUVraysfromsunlight.AdeficiencyofvitaminsEandK

israrelyseeninadultsasbothvitaminsarewide-spread

innature.

 The B-complex vitamins are water soluble and

includeeightvitamins,namelythiamineorB

,riboflavin

orB

,niacin,pyridoxineorB

,folicacid,cyanocobalamine

or B

, pantothenic acid, and biotin. They mainly

functionasco-enzymesinthereleaseofenergyfrom

carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Three B-complex

vitaminsaredesignated‘anaemiapreventingvitamins’

astheyareneededforsynthesisofhaemeandforthe

maturation of red blood cells. Apart from the food

sources,thebacterialfloraintheintestinearecapableof

synthesizingvitamins,namelyvitaminKandB-complex

vitamins.

 VitaminCisthemostsusceptibleofallvitamins.Itis

presentin fresh fruits and vegetablesandinsprouted

grain.Itisdestroyedbyoxidation,heat,andanalkaline

medium.Propercookingpracticesneedtobefollowed

ifvitamincontentoffoodhastoberetained.

Key TeRMs

Anaemia AconditioninwhichnumberofRBCsor

haemoglobincontentofbloodisreduced.

Antagonist  Asubstancethatinterfereswiththe

actionofanothersubstance.

Antioxidant Asubstancenaturallypresentoradded

toaproducttopreventitsbreakdownbyoxygen.

b-carotene Afat-solublecarotenoidpigmentwhich

ispresentinplantsandisaprecursorofvitaminA.

Carotene Reddishorangecolourpigmentinyellow/

orange/redfruitsandvegetablesandgreenleafy

vegetableswhichincludea-,b-,andg-carotenes

andcryptoxanthin.

Cheilosis Swollen,cracked,andredlips.

Co-enzyme Asubstancethatmustbepresentalong

withanenzymeforaspecificreactiontooccur.

Collagen Intercellularcementingsubstanceswhichis

proteinmatrixofcartilage,connectivetissue,and

bone.

Glossitis Inflammationofthetongue.

158 f oodscienceandn utrition

andincludesbothnaturalandprocessedfoods

suchasmilkandmilkproducts,proteinrichmoist

foodssuchasmeat,fish,poultry,cookedriceand

pulses,etc.

Prions Theseareinfectious,proteinaceousparticles

whicharecapableofcausingTSEsinhumans

andanimals.Theyaresmallerthanvirusesand

donotcarryanygeneticmaterials,resisthigh

temperaturesandchemicalsandareextremely

difficulttodestroy.

Psychrophiles Thesearecold-loving

microorganismsthatcansurviveattemperatures

aslowas-28 °C(–18.4 °F)andcanmultiplyat

temperaturesashighas20 °C(68 °F).

Putrefaction Itistheanaerobicdecompositionof

proteinsbybacteriawiththedevelopmentof

foul-smellingcompounds.

Sanitation Thewordsanitationcomesfrom

theLatinwordsanuswhichmeans‘soundand

healthy’or‘cleanandwhole’.Inthefoodindustry,

sanitationmeanscreatingandmaintaininghygienic

andhealthfulconditions.

Sanitize Itmeanstoreducethenumberofdisease-

causingbacteriatosafelevels.

Saprophyte Anyorganismthatlivesondeador

decayingorganicmatterforitssurvivaliscalled

saprophyte.

Sewage Itisthewastematterfromthetoilets,

bathrooms,kitchen,andotherdrainscarriedoff

bysewers.Liquidwastefromabovesourcesis

alsocalledgreywater.

Spore Abacterialsporeisaresistantstructure

formedinsomerod-shapedbacterialcellsthat

canwithstandunfavourableconditions.Itremains

dormanttillconditionsbecomefavourableand

germinateintoavegetativecellthatcanmultiply

andgrow.

Survival Continuetoliveinspiteofunfavourable

conditionsandcanmultiplyorgrowwhen

conditionsforgrowtharesuitableorfavourable

Thermophiles Microbesthatgrowbetterat

temperaturesfrom45 °Cto60 °Candsometimes

higher

Ubiquitous Presenteverywhereinour

environment,inandonhumans,plants,animals,

water,air,soil,andinanimateobjects

Vaccination Itistheintroductionofanykindof

deadorweakenedmicrobesintothebodyofa

livingbeingtodevelopresistanceorimmunity

againstthatspecificdisease.

Water activity (a

)



Itistheamountofwaterin

foodthatisavailabletomicroorganismsfortheir

growth.Somewaterisboundtoothersubstances

andhencedoesnotsupportmicrobialgrowth.

Wholesomefood Itisfood thatishealthful,atthe

rightstageofmaturity,freefrompollutants,and

contaminantsandisfitforconsumption.

revIew exercIses

 1. Whydoesafoodhandlerneedtohaveknowledge

aboutfoodmicrobiology?

 2. Classify the different microorganisms which are

presentinourfood.

 3. Discussthebeneficialeffectsofmicroorganisms.

 4. Explainthetermscross-contamination,sanitation,

foodborneillnesses,anddangerzone.

 5. Differentiate between food poisoning and food

infection.

 6. List the various factors which affect microbial

growthandexplainanytwofactors.

 7. Definethefollowingterms:

  (a) Anaerobes (c) Thermophiles

  (b) Infestation (d) Saprophytes

  (e) Contamination (g) High-riskfoods

   (f) Endospores

 8. With the help of a line diagram, explain how

diseasesaretransmitteddirectlyandindirectly.

 9. Discusstheharmfuleffectsofmicroorganismswith

respecttofoodspoilageandfoodborneillnesses.

assIgnment

Visitthekitchenofyourcollegecanteenandlistmeasuresyouwouldsuggesttothecaterertoensureserviceof

safeandwholesomefood.

260 food s cience and nutrition

Fill in the blanks

 1. Dietaryfibreprovides__________kcal/gofenergy.

 2. Thehumanbodystorescarbohydrateintheform

of__________inthemusclesandliver.

 3. The water-soluble fibre __________ is used for

settingjamsandjellies.

 4. Thesugar__________ispresentintheblood

stream.

 5. Thehormone__________secretedbythe

__________regulatesbloodsugarlevels.

 1. Diseasecausedduetoinsufficientinsulin

 2. Elevatedbloodglucoselevels

 3. Disaccharidemadeupofglucoseandgalactose

 4. Dietaryfibrethatisnotacarbohydrate

 5. Bloodlevelofasubstanceatwhichitcannotbe

reabsorbedbythekidneys

Give one word for the following

260 food s cience and nutrition

Fill in the blanks

 1. Dietaryfibreprovides__________kcal/gofenergy.

 2. Thehumanbodystorescarbohydrateintheform

of__________inthemusclesandliver.

 3. The water-soluble fibre __________ is used for

settingjamsandjellies.

 4. Thesugar__________ispresentintheblood

stream.

 5. Thehormone__________secretedbythe

__________regulatesbloodsugarlevels.

 1. Diseasecausedduetoinsufficientinsulin

 2. Elevatedbloodglucoselevels

 3. Disaccharidemadeupofglucoseandgalactose

 4. Dietaryfibrethatisnotacarbohydrate

 5. Bloodlevelofasubstanceatwhichitcannotbe

reabsorbedbythekidneys

Give one word for the following

318 food scienceandn utrition

sUmmaRy

Mineralelementsareinorganiccompoundspresentin

bodytissuesandfluidsinsmallamountsandarereferred

toasmicronutrients.Theyconstitute4percentofbody

weightanddonotprovideanyenergy.Theyareclassified

intothreegroupsbasedonthequantityrequiredbythe

body.Majormineralsormacromineralsarerequiredin

largeamounts exceeding 100mg/day. Minor minerals

are required in amounts less than 100 mg / day and

traceelementsarethosewhoserequirementisafew

milligramsorinmicrogramsperday.

 Themineralsofimportancetothebodyarecalcium,

phosphorus, sodium, chloride,magnesium potassium,

sulphur,allofwhicharemajorminerals.Iron,manganese,

fluorine,zinc,molybdenum,copper,cobalt,andiodine

arerequiredinmuchsmallerquantities.

 Mineralsoccurinthebodyascomponentsoforganic

compounds,ascomponentsofinorganiccompounds,and

asfreeionsinallcells.Theyperformvariousfunctions

related to growth and maintenance and regulation of

bodyfunctions.

 Theyarewidelydistributedinnatureandabalanced

dietwithvarietyinchoiceoffoodsensuresanadequate

intake and prevention of deficiency. However, many

factorsaffecttheabsorptionandutilizationofminerals

andtheseneedtobeknowntoenhanceavailabilityof

minerals.

Key TeRms

Betel leaf LeafofthecreeperPiperbetle,whichis

consumedalongwithslakedlimeandbetelnut

foritsdigestiveproperties.

Bioavailability Bioavailabilityistheproportionor

theamountofanutrient/mineralthatisabsorbed

andentersthecirculation,andcanbeutilizedby

thebody.

Co-factor Amineralelementwhichactivatesan

enzyme.

Electrolyte Anelementorcompoundwhich

dissociates,wheninsolution,intoions.

Garden cress seeds Maroonredseeds,which

whensoakedinwaterdevelopamucilaginous

covering.

Haeme iron Ironassociatedwiththehaemoglobin

moleculeandisbetterabsorbedthannon-haemeiron.

Niger seeds Alsocalledblackgingellyseedsor

karal.

Non-haeme iron Ironpresentinplantfoodsand

partlyinmeat,fish,andpoultry,whichisnot

associatedwithhaemoglobin.

Oxalic acid Anorganicacidpresentingreenleafy

vegetablesandcocoa.

Phytic acid Anorganicacidpresentinouterlayers

ofcerealswhichcombineswithcalciumforming

insolublecalciumphytate.

RevIew exeRCIses

 1. List the seven major minerals. Describe the func-

tionsofmineralsingeneral.

 2. Classifymineralelements,givingtwoexamplesfor

each.

 3. State the factors which affect absorption of iron

andcalciuminthebody.

 4. Definethefollowingterms:

  (a)Mineralelements

  (b)Co-factor

  (c)Traceelements

  (d)Goitrogens

 5. Listthevarioussourcesofsodiuminourdiet.

 6. Theiodinecontentoffooddependsontheiodine

contentofthesoilonwhichithasgrown.Explain

thisstatement.

 7. Match the following minerals in column I with a

deficiencysymptomincolumnII.

 

 I II

 (i)Calcium (a) Toothdecay

 (ii)Iron (b) Cretinism

 (iii)Sodium (c) Musclecramps

 (iv)Iodine (d) Alkalosis

 (v)Fluorine (e) Spoon-shapednails

 (vi)Chloride (f) Macrocyticanaemia

 (vii)Phosphorus (g) Osteoporosis

 (h) Glossitis

 (i) Tetany

 (j) Nightblindness

Oxford University Press

Brief Contents

Preface to the ird Edition v

Preface to the First Edition xi

Features of the Book xiv

PART I FOOD SCIENCE

1. Introduction to Food Science 2

 2. ColloidalSystemsinFoods 19

 3. Carbohydrates  31

 4. Proteins   54

 5. FruitsandVegetables 78

 6. FatsandOils  91

 7. Flavour   109

 8. BrowningReactions 119

 9. EvaluationofFood 126

PART II FOOD SAFETY

10. FoodMicrobiology 142

11. FoodProcessingandPreservation 162

12. FoodSafety  185

13. FoodStandards,Regulations,andQualityManagement 208

PART III NUTRITION

14. IntroductiontoNutrition 240

15. CarbohydratesinNutrition 253

16. ProteinsinNutrition 265

17. Lipids 278

18. Water   291

19. Vitamins   297

20. Minerals   311

21. EnergyMetabolism 323

22. BalancedDiet  338

23. MenuPlanningandMassFoodProduction 350

24. ModiedDiets  372

25. NewTrendsinFoods 389

Appendix: First Aid 415

Index 437

About the Author 443

Oxford University Press

Detailed Contents

Preface to the ird Edition v

Preface to the First Edition xi

Features of the Book xiv

PART I FOOD SCIENCE

1. Introduction to Food Science 2

Introduction 2

Inter-relationship between Food Chemistry,

Food Microbiology, and

  FoodProcessing 3

  NeedforConvenienceFoods 4

  FoodScienceConcepts 5

  BasicSIUnitsofLength,Area,Volume,and

 Weight 5

   MeasurementofLength 5

   MeasurementofVolume 6

   MeasurementofWeightorMass 6

Density 7

Relative Density 7

Temperature 8

Conversion of Farenheit Scale to

Celsius Scale 8

Conversion of Celsius Scale to

Farenheit Scale 8

  Typesofermometers 9

  PotentialHydrogenorpH 9

Applications of pH 11

Important Terminologies, their Denition,

and Relevance 12

   BoilingPoint 12

   ApplicationsofBoilingPoint 12

Applications of Boiling under

   Pressure 12

Evaporation 12

Applications of Evaporation 12

   MeltingPoint 13

Applications of Melting

   Point 13

   SurfaceTension 14

Applications of Surface

   Tension 14

   Osmosis 15

    ApplicationsofOsmosis 15

   Humidity 15

    ApplicationsofHumidity 15

  FoodRheology 15

    ApplicationsofElasticity 16

2. Colloidal Systems in Foods 19

  Introduction 19

  ConstituentsofFood 19

   TrueSolution 20

   Suspension 20

   ColloidalSystems 20

Stability of Colloidal Systems 21

Types of Colloidal Systems in Food 22

Sol 22

Oxford University Press

xviii Detailed Contents

   Gel 23

   Emulsion 24

    eoryofEmulsication 24

    StabilityofanEmulsion 25

Some Common Food Emulsions 27

3. Carbohydrates 31

  Introduction 31

  ClassicationofCarbohydrates 33

   Monosaccharides 33

   Disaccharides 34

   Oligosaccharides 34

   Polysaccharides 35

  StructureofCarbohydrates 35

   ReducingSugars 36

   Non-reducingSugar 36

   Polysaccharides 36

   Starch 36

    EectofCookingonStarch 40

    FactorswhichAecttheProperty

of Starch as a ickening

    Agent 41

    EectofAddedIngredients 41

  Gelation 41

   TypeofStarch 42

   ConcentrationofStarch 42

   DurationofHeating 42

   Stirring 42

   OtherIngredients 42

   AgingofaGel 43

  Retrogradation 43

  Dextrinization 43

  TypesofFoodStarches 43

   UnmodiedStarches 43

   ModiedStarches 44

  CerealsandCerealProducts 44

   CerealsusedintheCateringIndustry 45

   MaltingofCereals 47

  Sugar 48

   SugarCookery 48

   MakingPreserves 49

   Honey 49

   ArticialSweeteners 49

  SolubleFibres—Pectins,Gums,and

 Mucilages 50

   Pectin 50

   Agar 50

   Algin 50

   Gums 50

  UsesofCarbohydratesinFood

 Preparation 51

4. Proteins 54

  Introduction 54

  BasicStructureandProperties 54

   PeptideLinkage 54

   ClassicationofProtein 55

    ClassicationofProteinsBased

   onStructure 55

Classication Based on

   Composition 56

Classication Based on

   Function 56

  NativeProteins 57

  DenaturedProteins 58

   StagesinHeatDenaturation 58

   EectsofDenaturation 58

   FactorsAectingDenaturation 58

  FunctionalPropertiesofSpecicProtein-

 RichFoods 59

   Gelatin 59

  Milk 60

   MilkCookery 60

Eect of Heat on Milk

   Proteins 60

    EectofAcidonCasein 60

  Eggs 61

   EggWhite 61

   EggYolk 61

   EectofHeatonEggProteins 61

   EggCookery 62

   EggFoams 62

    StagesofFreshEggWhiteFoam 

  Formation 62

    FactorsAectingEggWhite

   FoamFormation 63

   SoueandFondue 65

   Cake 65

Oxford University Press

Detailed Contents xix

   FunctionsofCakeIngredients 65

    Eggs 65

    Sugar 65

    Acid 65

    Flour 65

    RoleofProteininBreadmaking 66

  Meat 66

   Post-mortemChanges 67

   RipeningorAging 67

   ChangesinMeatduringCooking 67

   TendernessofMeat 68

   CuredMeat 69

  Pulses 69

   EectofSteeping 70

Eect of Cooking 71

   SproutingofPulses 72

  CommercialusesofProteins 72

   ProteinConcentrates,Isolates

and Hydrolysates, and their

  Applications 73

    ProteinConcentrates 73

    ProteinIsolates 73

    ProteinHydrolysates 74

   TexturedVegetableProtein 74

   OtherCommercialUsesof 

  Protein 75

5. Fruits and Vegetables 78

Introduction 78

  ClassicationofFruitsandVegetables 78

  PlantTissueSystems 80

   DermalTissueSystem 80

   VascularTissueSystem 80

   GroundTissueSystem 80

    ParenchymaCells 80

Collenchyma Tissue 81

Sclerenchyma Cells 81

Enzymes 82

Organic Acids 82

Maturation and Ripening 82

  Post-HarvestChanges 83

    ClimactericFruits 83

    Non-climactericFruits 83

  NaturalColouringPigments 84

   Chlorophylls 84

Eect of Cooking on

   Chlorophyll 85

   Carotenoids 86

Classication of Carotenoid

   Pigments 86

    CarotenoidPigmentsand

   VitaminAActivity 86

Eect of Cooking on Carotenoid

   Pigments 87

Flavonoids 87

Betalains 88

Eect of Cooking on Flavonoid

   Pigments 88

6. Fats and Oils 91

  Introduction 91

  Structure 92

   Properties 93

  Rancidity 93

   TypesofRancidity 94

  Reversion 95

Factors Leading to Rancidity and

 Reversion 96

   Temperature 96

   Moisture 96

   Air 96

   Light 96

   Metals 96

   DegreeofUnsaturation 96

   AbsenceofAntioxidants 96

  PreventionofRancidity 96

  EectofHeatonFatsandOils 97

  Polymerization 97

  CareofFatsandOils 97

  ExtractionofFatsandOils 98

   Rendering 98

   Pressing 98

   SolventExtraction 98

  Rening 98

  Winterization 99

  HydrogenationofOils 99

   Cis-TransConguration 100

   Interesterication 100

Oxford University Press

xx Detailed Contents

  Shortenings 100

   ShorteningPowerofFatsandOils 100

   DietMargarines 101

   WhippedButterandMargarine 102

   Soft(Tub)Margarines 102

   PeanutButter 102

   StickMargarine 102

  PopularFatsandOilsAvailable 102

   Oils 102

   Butter 102

   Spreads 102

   Vanaspati 102

   Margarine 102

   CompoundFats 103

   Suet 103

   Dripping 103

   OliveOil 103

   CanolaOil 103

   FreshCream 103

  NutsandOilseeds 103

Role of Nuts and Oilseeds in

  Cookery 104

    Uses 105

  CommercialUsesofFatsandOils 105

   ShorteningPower 106

  FatReplacers 106

   TypesofFatReplacers 106

7. Flavour 109

  Introduction 109

   Denitions 110

  NaturalFlavours 110

   SomeFlavoursomePlantProducts 110

  ProcessedFlavours 111

Added Flavours 111

  SpicesandHerbs 113

  UseofFlavoursinFoodPreparation 115

8. Browning Reactions 119

  Introduction 119

  TypesofBrowningReactions 119

   EnzymaticBrowning 120

    PreventionofEnzymatic 

   Browning 120

Non-enzymatic Browning 121

Maillard Reaction 121

Conditions which Favour

Maillard Reaction 122

   Caramelization 123

   AscorbicAcidBrowning 123

   LipidBrowning 124

  RoleofBrowninginFoodPreparation 124

  DetrimentalEectsofBrowning 124

9. Evaluation of Food 126

  Introduction 126

Importance of Evaluation to the

  FoodIndustry 126

Methods of Evaluation 127

Subjective Evaluation 127

    PreferenceTests 127

    DierenceTesting 129

   ObjectiveEvaluation 133

    PhysicalMethods 134

TestforVolume 134

TestforMoisture 135

    ChemicalMethods 137

   ProximateCompositionofFood

  Constituents 138

   ProximateAnalysisofFood

  Constituents 138

PART II FOOD SAFETY

10. Food Microbiology 142

  Introduction 142

Important Microorganisms in Food

 Microbiology 143

   Viruses 143

   Bacteria 143

   Fungi 145

    Yeasts 145

    Molds 146

   Algae 147

   Parasites 147

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Detailed Contents xxi

  FactorsAectingtheGrowthofMicrobes 147

   Food 147

   Warmth 148

   Moisture 148

   Time 148

   pHLevel 149

   OsmoticPressure 149

   Oxygen 149

   DangerZone 149

   UsefulandHarmfulMicrobes 149

  FoodFermentations 150

   AlcoholicFermentations 150

   FermentationofMilk 151

   ManufactureofVinegar 151

  ContaminationofFood 153

   Contaminant 155

   CrossContamination 155

  Food-BorneIllnesses 155

  HowPathogensSpreadtoFood 156

Food, Fingers, Faeces, Fomites, and

  Flies 156

   TypesofFoodBorneIllnesses 156

    FoodPoisoning 156

    FoodInfection 156

    DierencebetweenFoodPoisoning

andFoodInfection 157

    ereeGoldenRulestoControl

ofFoodBorneDiseases 157

  EmergingPathogens 158

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

(BSE) 159

11. Food Processing and Preservation 162

  Introduction 162

  CausesofFoodSpoilage 163

  ObjectivesofFoodProcessing 164

  MethodsofFoodPreservation 165

   UseofLowTemperatures 165

    Refrigeration/Chilling 165

    Cook–chill 165

    Freezing 166

    FreezeFlow 167

    Cook–freeze 167

   CreatingaVacuum 167

   VacuumPacking 167

   UseofHighTemperatures 167

    WetHeat 168

    DryHeat 169

   RemovalofMoisturefromFood 169

    UseofMechanicalDryers 169

    FreezeDrying 169

   UseofPreservatives 171

    ClassIPreservatives 171

    ClassIIPreservatives 171

Controlled Atmosphere Storage 172

   PreservationbyFermentation 173

   PreservationbyRadiation 173

    UltravioletIrradiation 173

   Milling 175

  EectofProcessing(Heat,Acid,andAlkali)

 onFoodConstituents 176

Food Additives 177

Numbering of Additives 177

Types of Additives 178

    Preservatives 178

    Antioxidants 180

    EmulsifyingAgents 180

Stabilizers and ickening

   Agents 180

    Humectants 180

    GasesandPropellants 181

Food Colours 181

Non-nutritive Sweeteners 181

Anti-caking Agents 181

Flavouring Agents 181

Nutrient Supplements 182

Bleaching Agents 182

Sequestrants or Chelating

Agents 182

Clarifying Agents 182

Acids and Acidity Regulators 182

12. Food Safety 185

  Introduction 185

  ImportantTerms 185

   GHPandGMP 186

Hygiene of the Food Establishment 187

Food Safety Management Systems

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xxii Detailed Contents

 Guidelines 187

Location, Layout, and Facilities 187

Location and Surroundings 187

Layout and Design of Food

   EstablishmentPremises 188

    Equipment,WorkSurfaces,and

Containers 188

    Facilities 189

  MaterialHandling 189

   PurchasingandReceiving 189

   FoodStorage 190

  FoodPreparation 190

   Cleaning 190

   Washing 190

   Pre-preparation 189

   awing 191

   Cross-contamination 191

   Cooking 191

   ReheatingofFood 191

   Chilling 192

Handling High Risk Foods and Deep Fat

  Frying 192

  Holding,Packaging,Distribution,Serving,

 andTransportation 193

   Holding—HotandCold 193

    Packaging 193

Food Distribution/Service and

   Transportation 193

  PersonalHygiene 193

   HealthStatus 193

  BehaviouralandPersonalCleanliness 194

   HandWashing 195

    HandWashingProcedure 195

    Attention 196

   BasicRequirementsForPersonal

  Hygiene 196

  SupportServices 198

   PestControlandManagement 198

    PestControl 198

    Pests’Management 198

   CleaningandMaintenance 199

    Precautions 199

   DishClothandDisposables 200

   DrainageandWasteDisposal 200

    TypesofWasteandGarbage

   Bins 200

   Training 201

  e7C’sofFoodHygiene 201

   Check 201

   Clean 201

   Cover 201

   CrossContaminationAvoid 202

   Cook 202

   Cool/Chill 202

   Consume 202

  e10CommonFaultsinFood

 PreparationandServices 203

  FoodAllergies 203

Foods which Commonly Contain

  Allergens 204

   SymptomsofAllergy 204

   ControlofFoodAllergies 205

13. Food Standards, Regulations, and Quality

Management 208

   Introduction 208

   FoodStandards 208

   InternationalStandards 209

    VoluntaryStandards 209

   ISOStandards 209

   IndianStandards 210

    BureauofIndianStandards 210

     CerticationSystem 210

     TypesofLicensing 210

     AgriculturalProduce(Grading

      andMarketing)Act,1937

      (AGMARK) 210

Regulatory Agencies 211

    PreventionofFoodAdulteration

     (PFA)Act,1954 211

e Food Safety and Standards

     Act(FSSA2006) 211

e Export Inspection

     Council 213

    QualityCouncilofIndia 213

   InternationalOrganizations 214

    WorldHealthOrganization 214

Food and Agricultural

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Detailed Contents xxiii

     Organization 215

    WorldTradeOrganization 215

   QualityManagement 216

    QualityManagement 

Systems 217

    QualityControl 217

    QualityAssurance 217

    QualityImprovement 218

    QualityPlanning 218

    QualityAssessment 218

    TotalQualityManagement 218

Food Safety Management

System 218

Hazard Analysis and Critical

     ControlPoints 219

     Hazards 220

     DevelopingaHACCP 

      Plan 220

    UseofHACCPinCatering 228

    BenetsofHACCP 228

Food Fortication 228

   GeneticallyModiedFoods 230

    BenetsofGMFoods 230

    SafetyConcerns 231

    IdenticationofGMFoods 231

   FoodLabelling 231

    HealthClaims 232

Nutrition Information

      Panel 234

    NutrientContentClaims 234

   TracLightSignalsonPackages 235

   Adulteration 235

Mislabelling/Misbranding/

    Misdescription 236

PART III NUTRITION

14. Introduction to Nutrition 240

  Introduction 240

   SomeImportantDenitions 240

  RelationofFoodandHealth 241

   Malnutrition 241

   Undernutrition 241

   Overnutrition 241

   Diet 241

   Kilocalorie(kcal) 241

   Health 242

   NutritionalStatus 242

  FoodanditsFunctions 242

   PhysiologicalFunctions 243

   PsychologicalFunction 243

   SocialFunction 243

Factors Aecting Food Intake and Food

   Habits 244

   GeographicReasons 244

   EconomicReasons 244

   ReligiousReasons 244

   SocialReasons 245

   Health 245

   Otherfactors 245

  ClassicationofNutrients 245

Classication on the Basis of Amounts

    RequiredEveryday 245

Classication on the Basis of

    Function 246

Classication on the Basis of Chemical

    Properties 246

Classication on the Basis of

    Essentiality 246

  RecommendedDietaryAllowances 246

Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism of

   Food 248

   DigestionofFood 249

    FactorsthatAectDigestion 249

   Absorption 250

   Metabolism 251

15. Carbohydrates in Nutrition 253

  Introduction 253

  ClassicationofCarbohydrates 254

Digestion, Absorption, and

   Metabolism 255

  Sources 257

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xxiv Detailed Contents

  Functions 257

   Deciency 258

   ExcessCarbohydrates 258

   RoleofDietaryFibreinPreventionand

     TreatmentofDisease 258

Recommended Dietary Intake for

    Adults 261

  ArticialSweeteners 261

  Alcohol 261

16. Proteins in Nutrition 265

  Introduction 265

   EssentialAminoAcids 266

   Non-essentialAminoAcids 266

  ProteinQuality 267

   LimitingAminoAcid 267

   BiologicalValue 267

  ClassicationofProteins 267

   ClassicationbyComposition 268

   ClassicationbyQuality 268

  FunctionsintheHumanBody 268

   StructuralFunctions 268

   RegulatoryFunctions 269

   Energy 269

Digestion, Absorption, and

   Metabolism 269

   MethodsofImprovingProtein

    Quality 271

   FactorsInuencingProtein

Requirements 272

Recommended Dietary

    Allowances 273

   DietarySources 273

    AnimalFoodSources 274

    PlantFoodSources 274

   SpecialProteinSupplements 274

   EectofDeciency 275

   EectofExcess 275

17. Lipids 278

Introduction 278

Classication of Lipids 278

Classication based on Structure 278

  FattyAcids 279

  UnsaturatedFattyAcids 280

Monounsaturated Fatty Acids 281

   PolyunsaturatedFattyAcids 281

Essential Fatty Acids 281

Antioxidants 282

  SaturatedFattyAcids 283

  Phospholipids 283

  Lipoproteins 283

  Glycolipids 283

  Cholesterol 284

   Sources 284

   FunctionsofFats 284

Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism

    ofFats 285

   Digestion 285

   Absorption 285

   Metabolism 286

Food Sources 287

   PlantSources 287

Animal Sources 287

Invisible Sources 287

Deciency of Fats 287

Symptoms of Excessive Intake 288

   RecommendedDietaryAllowances 289

18. Water 291

  Introduction 291

  Functions 291

  DailyIntakeofWater 292

  DailyLossofBodyWater 292

  WaterBalance 293

   DeciencyofWater 293

   RetentionofWater 294

   DailyRequirement 294

   Beverages 294

   NutritiveValueofBeverages 295

19. Vitamins 297

  Introduction 297

  Classication 297

  Fat-SolubleVitamins 298

   VitaminA 298

   VitaminD 300

   VitaminE 301

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   VitaminK 301

  Water-SolubleVitamins 302

   B-ComplexVitamins 302

iamine (vitamin B

) 303

Riboavin (vitamin B

) 304

    Niacin 304

   Anaemia-preventingVitamins 305

Folic Acid or Dietary

     Folate 305

    Cyanocobalamin(Vitamin 

) 306

    Pyridoxine(VitaminB

) 306

   VitaminC 307

   EectofCookingonVitamins 308

20. Minerals 311

  Introduction 311

  Classication 312

  GeneralFunctionsofMinerals 312

   BioavailabilityofMinerals 315

   Calcium 315

   Phosphorus 316

   Iron 317

   Iodine 318

   Fluorine 319

   Sodium 319

   Potassium 320

   Magnesium 320

21. Energy Metabolism 323

  Introduction 323

  FormsofEnergy 324

  UnitsofMeasurement 324

  EnergyValueofFood 325

   Calorimetry 325

   ProximateComposition 325

  EnergyNeedsoftheBody 326

  TotalEnergyRequirement 327

  BasalMetabolicRate 327

   TestforBasalMetabolism 327

   FactorsAectingtheBMR 328

  SpecicDynamicAction 328

  PhysicalActivity 329

  EnergyBalance 329

   Overweight 330

    CausesofObesity 330

    Underweight 331

  CalculatingtheEnergyValueBasedon 

   ProximatePrinciples 331

  DietarySources 332

  EstimationofEnergyRequirements 332

   CalculatingEnergyRequirements 334

  ModifyingEnergyContentofMeals 335

   Underweight 335

    ToGainWeight 335

   Overweight/Obesity 335

    ToReduceWeight 335

22. Balanced Diet 338

  Introduction 338

  RecommendedDietaryAllowance 338

   RDAsforSpecicNutrients 339

   Denition 340

  BasicFoodGroups 340

   CerealandMilletsGroup 342

   ProteinorBody-buildingFood

    Group 343

   ProtectiveFoodGroup 344

   SecondaryProtectiveGrouporOther

    FruitsandVegetables 344

   FatsandOils,Sugar,andJaggery 345

  GuidelinesforusingtheBasicFood

   Group 345

  eFoodPyramid 345

23. Menu Planning and Mass Food

Production 350

  Introduction 350

  FactorsInuencingMealPlanning 351

   NutritionalAdequacy 351

   EconomicConsiderations 352

   TypeofFoodService 352

   EquipmentandWorkSpace 352

   LeftoverFood 352

   FoodHabits 352

   Availability 352

   MealFrequencyandPattern 352

   Variety 352

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xxvi Detailed Contents

   PlanningBalancedMeals 353

   Protective/RegulatoryFoods 353

   Body-buildingFoods 353

   Energy-givingFoods 355

  StepsinPlanningBalancedMeals 355

   SampleBalancedDiet 356

  CalculatingtheNutritiveValueofa

   Recipe 358

   NutritiveValueofShrewsbury

    Biscuits 360

  SpecialNutritionalRequirements 361

   Pregnancy 361

   Lactation 362

   Infancy 362

   Childhood 363

   Adolescence 364

   OldAge 365

  EectofQuantityCookingandProcessing

   onNutrients 367

   BenetsofCookingFood 367

   CommonFoodProcessing

    Techniques 367

24. Modied Diets 372

  Introduction 372

  PurposeofDieterapy 372

  ClassicationofModiedDiets 373

   ModicationsinConsistency 373

Modications in Nutrient

    Content 375

   ModicationsinFibre 375

   ModicationsinQuantity 376

Modications in Method of

    Feeding 376

  DietsforCommonDisorders 377

   DiabetesMellitus 377

    SymptomsofDiabetes 377

    TreatmentofDiabetes 377

   FeversandInfection 378

   CardiovascularDiseases 378

   DisordersoftheGastrointestinal

    Tract 381

   LiverDisorders 382

   KidneyDisorders 383

  Cancer 384

  Naturopathy 385

   GuidelinesforaNaturopathy-based 

    BalancedDiet 385

Disadvantages of Cooking

     Food 385

Advantages of Consuming

     UncookedFood 386

    Precautionstobetakenwhile

     PreparingNaturalFoods 386

Suggested Sample Menu for a

     NaturopathyDiet 386

25. New Trends in Foods 389

  Introduction 389

  SoyaFoods 390

  FoodFads 390

  OrganicFoods 391

  HealthFoods 391

  NaturalFoods 392

  LiveFoods 392

  NewTrendsinFoodPackaging 392

  WhyPackagingisNecessary 393

  TypesofPackages 394

   Multi-layeredPackaging 394

   PackagingTypes 394

Intentionally Added Substances and Non-

 IntentionallyAddedSubstances 396

   PlasticsforFoodPackaging 396

   SafetyConcernsforPlastics 397

   GeneralPrecautionswhileusing

    Plastics 397

  PackagingWaste 397

  SmartPackaging/Intelligent

   Packaging 398

   BiodegradablePackaging 399

   EdibleFilmsandCoatings 399

  SafetyConcernsRegardingUseofPlasticsas

   FoodContactMaterial 400

Need for Serving Nutritional and

   Health-specicMeals 401

  NutritiveValueofFastFoodandJunk

   Food 402

Nutritional Evaluation of Newly Launched

Oxford University Press

Detailed Contents xxvii

   Products 403

   TransFattyAcids 404

   NutritionalandProductEvaluationof

    NewlyLaunchedProducts 405

  Nutraceuticals 406

  PrebioticsandProbiotics 409

   Prebiotics 409

    SourcesofPrebiotics 409

    BenecialEectsofPrebiotic

     Fibre 409

   Probiotics 410

    SourcesofProbiotics 410

  Antioxidants 411

  RoleofPhytochemicals 411

Appendix: First Aid 415

Index 437

About the Author 443

Oxford University Press

INTRODUCTION